Bible: Revelation

Explanation and Analysis of the Document

Revelation is structured as a letter, or an epistle, written by John to the seven churches of Asia Minor (Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea). The first three chapters of the book are a prologue in which the author makes clever comments that pertain to social, religious, and political issues in those seven cities. The style of the book indicates that it is apocalyptic literature, that is, a work that uses bizarre and highly symbolic imagery in visions to predict the future, which for the audience is actually mostly in the past. Like other apocalyptic writings, Revelation anticipates God’s deliverance of faithful believers from persecution. In addition, Revelation is also a highly liturgical work, with many hymnic elements inserted into its visions. The book is twenty-two chapters long; this commentary treats chapters 4–13 and 15–22.

The messages of Revelation are these: Christ is faithful to his people, history will unfold according to the divine plan and see Christ’s ultimate victory over evil, those Christians who endure will be blessed, all evil is temporary, and the ultimate victory of God occurred with Jesus’s Resurrection, for therein evil was truly defeated—the rest of history until the Second Coming is simply the “mopping-up campaign” of God.

Scholars often have outlined the book of Revelation as seven cycles of symbolic images, though not everyone agrees on the exact divisions of the text. This is one such outline: Seven Seals (chapters 4–7), Seven Trumpets (chapters 8–11), Seven Visions of the Dragon (chapters 12–13), Seven Visions of the Lamb (chapter 14), Seven Bowls of Wrath (chapters 15–16), Seven Visions of Babylon (chapters 17–19), and Seven Visions of the End (chapters 19–22). Worthy of note is the author’s indication that the end of time, or Judgment Day, supposedly comes at the end of the cycles of Seven Seals, Seven Trumpets, Seven Visions of the Lamb, Seven Visions of Babylon, and Seven Visions of the End. (It is probably implied in the other two cycles.) This means that each cycle backs up in time and describes the same period and events leading up to the time of the book’s composition. This pattern of repetition of allusions to historical events also occurs in the Old Testament book of Daniel (chapters 2, 4, 7–9, and 11). Thus, different signs can allude to the same events or cultural phenomena.

Scholars are generally loath to make too many connections between symbols in Revelation and historical events of the late first century CE, because the symbols are very generic. For example, the Bowls of Wrath borrow imagery from the Ten Plagues in the book of Exodus, and they simply refer to the various woes that afflict people in many ages. Symbols in other apocalyptic books, such as Daniel, are more easily connected to specific events of the time when the book was written. The looseness of the symbols in Revelation enabled the book to be used during subsequent Roman persecutions through the second and third centuries CE, because they described recurrent events. It also allowed the book to be referenced randomly in any century to “foretell” the immediate future, as when some people predicted that Judgment Day would come in 1988 (the fortieth anniversary of the modern state of Israel) or 1996 (two thousand years after Jesus’s birth). But the loose symbols used by the author also reflect a brilliant literary artistic sense, which sets Revelation apart from so many other apocalyptic works of that age.

Still, we must acknowledge that certain symbols are conceded by most scholars to have specific equivalents to historical events and persons. References to the Son of Man, the Lamb, the baby, the second rider on the white horse, or Michael all point to Jesus. The references to a persecution lasting three and a half years (or 42 months or 1,260 days) is a symbolic allusion to any persecution, since the famous persecution of the Jews that led to Maccabean independence lasted from 167 to 164 BCE—three and a half years. The number 144,000 is created by multiplying 12 (representing the twelve tribes of Israel) times 12 (representing the twelve apostles) times 1,000 (the Hebrew number that stands for eternity) to equal a number that symbolizes the totality of all believers from every age, which, of course, is in the millions. The invading horde, Gog and Magog, the horsemen on the Euphrates, and the frogs all refer to the potential invasion of Parthians out of the country of Persia (modern-day Iran), whose armies were made up primarily of cavalry. This empire in Persia by this time had been the enemies of Rome for two centuries and would continue to be for five more centuries.

Numerous symbols refer to Rome. Babylon is a code name for Rome, not only in Revelation but elsewhere in the New Testament (1 Peter 5:13) as well. We hear of a beast with seven heads and ten horns. The seven heads might refer to the city of Rome, built upon seven famous hills, and the ten horns might be symbolic of those Roman emperors who ruled from the time of Jesus to 96 CE, when the book of Revelation was composed. These emperors are typically considered to be Tiberius (14–37 CE), Caligula (37–41 CE), Claudius (41–54 CE), Nero (54–68 CE), Galba (68–69 CE), Otho (69 CE), Vitellius (69 CE), Vespasian (69–79 CE), Titus (79–81 CE), and Domitian (81–96 CE). (Some scholars, however, omit Galba, Otho, and Vitellius—who ruled during the so-called Year of the Four Emperors—and include other emperors before and after those on this list.) The famous number 666 (also known as the “number of the beast”) refers to Nero, for when his name in written in Hebrew and the Hebrew letters are converted to numbers, the total is 666. Even more convincing, however, is the fact that Nero’s name can be spelled differently in Hebrew, and the total of those letters is 616. Some versions of the book of Revelation declare that the number of the beast is 616. Only Nero’s name can equal both of these numbers. In the book of Revelation, Nero’s name is perhaps a symbol for another emperor: Domitian. In later apocalyptic works, like the Pseudo-Sibylline Oracles, book VIII (ca. 150 CE), Nero symbolizes the emperor Hadrian. So in Revelation we have symbols representing other symbols.

For some symbols most commentators show great reluctance to provide equivalent meanings, because our historical evidence is weak. However, it is worth mentioning them. The mark of the beast may refer to stamps or marks placed on business documents or citizenship papers, depending on how people swore allegiance to the emperor when they renewed their papers for the sake of travel permits, building permits, and the right to engage in business. In times of dire economic and political difficulties, people lacking such a stamp were vulnerable to scrutiny, ridicule, and imprisonment for being possible traitors. Perhaps the image of the woman dressed in red and purple is the representation of the Dea Roma, whose veneration the Roman government forced upon citizens in the eastern provinces. Dea Roma was also called the Great Mother, so that the biblical reference to “Babylon the great, mother of whores” may be a veiled reference to Dea Roma, the Great Mother. Thus, much of the imagery in Revelation may be connected to a critique of the cult of emperor worship and the state enforcement of these practices and beliefs, but these observations are very speculative.

Seven Seals

John begins his visionary experience by observing twenty-four elders (probably representing the twelve tribes of Israel and the twelve apostles) seated around a heavenly throne before a sea of glass and four creatures—a lion, an ox, a human face, and a flying eagle (which, in later years, would become symbols for the four evangelists—Mark, Luke, Matthew, and John, respectively). The creatures sing a short hymn, which is characteristic of much of the book of Revelation; many hymnic elements are interspersed throughout the book.

John then views a scroll with seven seals, each opened by the Lamb (Jesus). The first four seals release four horses (white, red, black, and pale) with riders. Scholars postulate that these horses allude, respectively, to a possible Parthian invasion, past civil war in Rome in the late 60s, current famine, and impending death. Of interest is the reference to a quart of wheat and three quarts of barley for a day’s pay and the admonishment not to “damage the olive oil and the wine.” Scholars note that this passage is a concrete historical allusion to the famous edict of the emperor Domitian, issued in 92 CE in the midst of a famine, when there was an abundance of wine and a shortage of grain. Domitian forbade anyone to plant more vineyards in Italy and ordered that half of existing vineyards be destroyed. The fifth seal describes the appearance of the martyrs, who cry out to God for justice to be meted out to their persecutors, and the sixth seal unveils an earthquake (a common experience for cities around Ephesus, seen as a sign of divine wrath) and cosmic signs, at which time 144,000 saints are sealed by God to protect them from harm. Finally, the seventh seal brings seven angels with seven trumpets to begin the next cycle of visions.

Seven Trumpets

The first trumpet sounds, and hail, fire, and blood fall upon the earth, killing one-third of the population. The second trumpet sounds, and a burning mountain falls into the sea, turning the water to blood—perhaps in reference to the destruction of Pompeii in the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE. The third trumpet sounds, and a great star falls into the water and kills many people. This might allude to the bright passing of Halley’s comet in 66 CE. The fourth trumpet causes the sun, moon, and stars to darken. The fifth trumpet opens a bottomless pit out of which come smoke and locusts. The king of the pit is called Abaddon in Hebrew and Apollyon in Greek. Apollyon is another name of the Greek god Apollo, and Roman emperors called themselves Apollo when they wished to be seen as divine. Thus the Roman emperor is king of the pit, and the locusts can be seen as his soldiers. The sixth trumpet releases angels and horses with their riders, who are held back at the Euphrates River. That river was the border between Rome and Parthia; the horsemen are Parthian cavalry. An angel brings seven thunders, followed by two witnesses (possibly referring to Moses and Elijah, who, in turn, represent the apostles Peter and Paul), who are killed but rise from the dead (that is, their message endures). The seventh trumpet brings Judgment Day. In general, these events remind us generically of the Ten Plagues of Egypt brought by Moses according to the Old Testament book of Exodus (river water to blood, locusts, hail, and darkness), and they can describe natural disasters of any age.

Seven Visions of the Dragon

The author begins with a beautiful vision of a celestial woman giving birth to a child (Mary and Jesus). They are confronted by a red dragon with seven heads and ten horns (the seven hills of Rome and the ten emperors). Before the dragon can eat him, the child is snatched away and “taken to God and to his throne,” as Jesus ascended into heaven. Then we are told that a “war broke out in heaven,” pitting the dragon and his angels against Michael (Jesus) and his angels, with Michael the victor “by blood of the Lamb.” This set of events is symbolic of the Resurrection of Jesus. The dragon represents Satan, and his defeat is really the high point of the book; the Resurrection of Jesus is more significant than his Second Coming. Later dragons represent the Roman Empire, and their activity is less important than Satan’s, so that God’s defeat of them is simply a mopping-up exercise after the great victory. The red dragon (now representing Rome) subsequently persecutes the woman (who symbolizes the Christian Church) for three and a half years (again, the symbolic period of persecution). We then observe a beast rise from the sea with seven heads and ten horns (imperial Rome). One of the heads seems to have received a death blow but has survived (in reference to Nero, who has come back as Domitian). A second beast rises out of the earth (Roman priests) and demands that all people worship the first beast (the emperor) and gives marks to those who do, so that they can buy and sell goods (perhaps referring to business documents or citizenship papers). “No one can buy or sell who does not have the mark, that is, the name of the beast or the number of its name”—that number being 666.

Seven Bowls of Wrath

Seven angels bring seven plagues in bowls. John sees a sea of glass and fire, an allusion to the Red Sea of the Exodus narrative, and then views the “temple of the tent,” which alludes to the tent of meeting. This tent was the Hebrew Tabernacle, a portable sanctuary that accompanied Moses and the Israelites on their wanderings in the wilderness. The angels pour forth the contents of their bowls, producing ulcers, a sea of blood, rivers of blood, scorching sun, darkness, a dry Euphrates riverbed to allow kings of the east to travel westward to Harmagedon along with frogs, and finally the fall of Babylon. Ulcers, blood in water, and darkness are simply allusions to the Ten Plagues. Kings in the east refer to the Parthians; frogs are a religious symbol of Ahriman, the god of darkness for the Parthians; and Harmagedon is a valley by Tel Megiddo in central Palestine, north of Jerusalem, where major battles were often fought—a possible battlefield for imminent Roman and Parthian combat. This cycle epitomizes both the general use of Old Testament plague images combined with specific historical allusions.

Seven Visions of Babylon

One of the seven angels shows John “the great whore,” dressed in red and purple, who rides a scarlet beast with seven heads and ten horns. On her forehead is written “Babylon the Great, mother of whores” (Dea Roma). John is told that the seven heads stand for seven mountains—a clear reference to Rome. The angel further reveals that these mountains are also seven kings. Scholars propose a multitude of theories to equate various emperors with the number seven. Perhaps these are the ten emperors minus Otho, Galba, and Vitellius, or the seven emperors from Nero to Domitian, or even the emperors starting with Caesar Augustus, predecessor to Tiberius, and omitting Domitian, along with Otho, Galba and Vitellius. There is an eighth king, most likely Domitian, who could be counted both as the seventh and the eighth king if we number the seven emperors as Tiberius through Domitian. Alternatively, he could be counted as a separate king if we number the seven emperors as Caesar Augustus through Titus. Either way he is seen as Nero, who is still alive despite a death blow and has returned from Parthia.

John sees another angel descending from the heavens and announcing the fall of Babylon, which “has become a dwelling place of demons” where merchants “have grown rich from the power of her luxury.” The merchants utter a long lament over its destruction. Perhaps Roman merchants wanted a persecution of Jews and Christians to eliminate competition in hard economic times. Ensuing visions speak of rejoicing Christians, rejoicing elders, and how the Lamb (Jesus) will marry the bride (the Church), all with added hymnic material. This cycle of visions illustrates for us how much of Revelation contains hymns.

Seven Visions of the End

John sees the heavens open to reveal a rider on a white horse (Jesus), who is called the Word of God. He defeats the beast in battle (the Resurrection of Jesus or Judgment Day). The beast (Rome) is thrown into a lake of fire, and the dragon (Satan) is bound in a pit. Nobody is really sure what these images mean, unless they are meant by the author to be futuristic. A thousand-year reign, or the millennium, then begins. A thousand years can equate with eternity, though most church fathers over the years have thought it referred to the peaceful spread of the Christian church in real time. Some pious Christians have believed that it refers to an actual thousand-year reign brought about by Jesus’s return to earth (pre-millennialism) or a thousand-year period of peace and justice instituted by Christians, after which Jesus returns to earth (post-millennialism). Scholars suspect the millennium is symbolic but are uncertain as to its meaning. During this time, martyrs would be with God, and Christians would live on the earth. Eventually, Satan escapes and joins with Gog and Magog to war against God. They ultimately lose, after which a new heaven and earth are created. A long description follows of the New Jerusalem, or heaven.

Scholars do not know if the author of Revelation was referring to something in his own age with this cycle of visions or, more likely, anticipating an event in the near or distant future. Because of the vagueness of the symbols in this cycle, popular religious spokespersons have created many different scenarios to predict human history and the precise coming of Judgment Day. So far, they have always been wrong. But the wild imagery of these symbols endures, particularly in art, literature, and popular religious piety.