Funeral Oration of Pericles

Explanation and Analysis of the Document

The occasion for Pericles' speech centered on a ceremony that honored the dead over a three-day period. On the first day, the bodies were laid out on platforms where families could place personal objects to be buried with the dead. On the third day, the remains were placed in cypress coffins, one for each tribe, and carried to the cemetery in nearby Ceramicus. One coffin was left empty to signify those missing in action. Anyone could follow the processional, and after the burial a speech was given by a person of prominence selected by the people. Afterward the families collectively mourned before leaving for home. Later the names of the honored dead were engraved in stone in lists organized by tribe.

Paragraph 1

Recognizing that not everyone in his audience supported him, Pericles opens his speech with rhetorical humility, commenting that the actions of the fallen speak for themselves, even if the speaker inadequately honors them. He deflects potential criticism by saying that he cannot do justice to the soldiers because their deeds cannot be fully explained. Such an attempt would actually cheapen them, and some might perceive his efforts as exaggeration for the sake of a good speech. Nevertheless, since the speech is part of the ritual, he is compelled by law to speak.

Paragraph 2

To justify the sacrifice of the fallen, Pericles had to focus on the cause for which they fought: Athens, which had been handed down to them by their ancestors. He does not attempt, however, simply to extol the city's past greatness but also to emphasize to his audience the present magnificence of their city. He sought to win the crowd to him by indicating that Athens stood in glory because of those who stood before him. He creates a unifying image by forging a link between the heroes of antiquity and those contemporary “heroes.” He indicates that the greatness in which they participated resulted from the democracy that reigned within the political system.

Behind Pericles' words one can see an effort to defend his policies by creating the idea that heroic greatness is not something past but that it exists as an ongoing process maintained by the continued involvement of the people. Involvement could be brought about only by a system that did not allow just the aristocracy to rule, as in the past, but that opened opportunities for all to speak out and let their voices be heard in the decision-making process. Pericles wanted his audience to consider themselves great and at the same time to associate their success with democracy.

Paragraph 3

In the face of those who might want to criticize the democratic government, Pericles emphasizes the uniqueness of a political system that promoted legal and social equality, in turn creating freedom. He stresses, however, that those freedoms did not encourage lawlessness, as some had suggested, but instead had created a sense of responsibility to respect others and to safeguard one's own reputation. Behind his qualifications one senses an effort to refute the charges of aristocrats who resisted the idea that an uneducated and common worker could maintain any self-control without strict laws. Athenian law had originated with Draco (seventh century BCE), an aristocrat whose strict laws kept the lower classes in line. Even when Solon the Idealist (ca. 630 BCE–ca. 560 BCE) reformed the legal code, an attitude persisted that only those of class could properly control the unruly masses. Pericles attempted to undermine that same attitude with his words.

Paragraph 4

Pericles briefly wraps up his point by defining those freedoms, for example, not as a mindless pursuit of pleasure but as a means that brought forth more opportunities for all. In times past only the rich enjoyed luxury goods, but the maritime trade had created circumstances to allow the influx of goods that enabled more people to enjoy the bounty of wealth.

Paragraph 5

In the next paragraph Pericles moves from simply defending democracy to contrasting the Athenian system with the “antagonist.” This reference to Sparta, left unspoken, perhaps in an effort to address pro-Spartan elements in the city, becomes more explicit. Pericles' audience would have been familiar with the Spartan custom of keeping outsiders at bay to prevent contamination of their social system. Pericles emphasizes their open society that allowed any to come and prosper (even if noncitizens could not earn political rights). Further, the Athenians would have recognized an implicit reference to Sparta’s rigid hierarchy, which produced specific roles for each citizen within the state. Those who did not enjoy citizenship, such as the helots, existed as exploited slaves. This system had created a society of soldiers, renowned for their martial prowess, but in spite of their famed military, Pericles declares, Spartans needed allies to accomplish the invasion of Athenian territory. In contrast, Athens stood alone, dependent on its own resources, which as of yet had not been fully mobilized. Thus, he stresses, they had met with success in battle, and those setbacks that they faced were of little consequence.

Paragraph 6

Against charges that Athenians were weak and soft (once again in contrast to Spartan strength), their citizenship had demonstrated instead that their wealth and educational system had created a unique strength and hardness. The industrious nature of the Athenians had resulted from their democratic system, which allowed all to labor and to benefit. (Spartans had slaves.) Furthermore, Athenians needed to be active and strong as they all made decisions in the assembly, once again in contrast to Spartans, who merely acquiesced to the decisions of their elders in council. Pericles idealizes Athenian courage and generosity toward helping other city-states find democracy and success. Ironically, on occasion Athens had imposed democratic governments on other states, and their “assistance” to the Delian League resulted in imperialism.

Paragraph 7

Given all of these strengths, Pericles declares that Athens shined like a beacon and a model to others. Once again, in contrast with others, they had no need for a Homer (ninth–eighth century BCE) to proclaim their great deeds in epic poetry. Instead, Athens demonstrated its greatness through its acts and the fact that it had grown into a mighty power—a power that compelled the honored dead to sacrifice their lives and called for the living to continue in personal sacrifice.

Paragraph 8

Pericles finally brings the focus of his speech to the celebrated dead. He indicates that their true monument was not the one erected in stone but the continued greatness of Athens, which had spawned great men whose merit rested on the fact that they were ready to die for the city. They had not been driven by fear or personal ambition, but they risked all to wreak vengeance on those who threatened their freedoms, a cause for which they felt honored to die. Once again the unspoken slight at Sparta, which fought simply to fight, was clear.

Paragraph 9

Thus in Pericles' mind, if these men held a willingness to sacrifice, then the survivors should resolve also to defend Athens. They could not afford a lack of unity within the community. By contrasting words and actions, he hoped to shame his detractors by forcing them to participate, not just for patriotic reasons but also for Athens's continued greatness. To pursue other agendas would diminish those who had perished in the cause. They had built the city with their courage, duty, and honor, offering themselves as a sacrifice to the greater good. They would not be contained by a simple tomb but would create a reputation that would fill the earth.

Paragraph 10

Finally, Pericles attempts to comfort the bereaved by reminding them that of the multiple dangers in life that can lead to death, dying for one's country is the best possible cause. He deems it better to have lost their loved ones for a great and noble cause than through a meaningless or random accident. Although he knew their loss would stay with them, he encourages them to start new families, who would grow to be noble Athenians. For those incapable of having more children, he assures them that they can rest in the eternal fame won by the sacrifice of their sons.

Paragraph 11

To the sons and brothers, Pericles issues a subtle challenge not to become lost in the shadow of the greatness of their deceased relatives. By indicating that others would forever compare their actions with the deeds of those who sacrificed, he hoped to instill within them a determination to continue to serve and to fight. His comments to the widows reflected a typical Greek belief that the gods had created women to be good wives and mothers. Being, in their minds, weaker by nature, women fulfilled a role that kept them in secluded domestic situations. Thus while men had freedom to enjoy social and sexual pursuits, a good woman had to remain at home. Pericles expresses his hope that these widows would continue such lifestyles, so as not to be gossiped about in public.

Paragraph 12

Pericles concludes the speech with a humble allusion that his words, though some might consider them inadequate, fulfilled the law. He challenges potential detractors, arguing that these men deserved the honors they had received. To encourage others not to lose heart in the struggle, he promises the ongoing reward that the children of those who lost their lives in the war would receive state support until grown. Beyond financial rewards, however, Athenians should look for the greater benefits of being honorable citizens who defend the glory of democratic Athens.