Matteo Ricci: “Religious Sects among the Chinese”

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Of all the pagan sects known to Europe, I know of no people who fell into fewer errors in the early ages of their antiquity than did the Chinese. From the very beginning of their history it is recorded in their writings that they recognized and worshipped one supreme being whom they called the King of Heaven, or designated by some other name indicating his rule over heaven and earth. It would appear that the ancient Chinese considered heaven and earth to be animated things and that their common soul was worshipped as a supreme deity. As subject to this spirit, they also worshipped the different spirits of the mountains and rivers, and of the four comers of the earth. They also taught that the light of reason came from heaven and that the dictates of reason should be hearkened to in every human action. Nowhere do we read that the Chinese created monsters of vice out of this supreme being or from his ministering deities, such as the Romans, the Greeks, and the Egyptians evolved into gods or patrons of the vices.

One can confidently hope that in the mercy of God, many of the ancient Chinese found salvation in the natural law, assisted as they must have been by that special help which, as the theologians teach, is denied to no one who does what he can toward salvation, according to the light of his conscience. That they endeavored to do this is readily determined from their history of more than four thousand years, which really is a record of good deeds done on behalf of their country and for the common good. The same conclusion might also be drawn from the books of rare wisdom of their ancient philosophers. These books are still extant and are filled with most salutary advice on training men to be virtuous. In this particular respect, they seem to be quite the equals of our own most distinguished philosophers. Just as fallen human nature continues to degenerate without the help of divine grace, so, too, primitive ideas of religion become so obscure with the passing of time, that there are very few who do not descend to the worse error of atheism when they abandon the cult of inanimate gods.

In this chapter, we shall treat only of the triple cult of the Chinese as distinguished from all other pagan sects. The traces of Saracen, Judaic, and of Christian worship evident in China we shall leave for later consideration. Chinese books enumerate only three cults or systems of religious observance for the whole world and this people knows of no others. These are the Literati, the Sciequia, and the Laucu. All Chinese and all people of the surrounding nations who make use of Chinese writing—the Japanese, the Koreans, the Leuquici or Formosans, and the Cochin Chinese—belong to one or other of these three sects.

The sect of the Literati is proper to China and is the most ancient in the kingdom. They rule the country, have an extensive literature, and are far more celebrated than the others. Individually, the Chinese do not choose this sect; they rather imbibe the doctrine of it in the study of letters. No one who attains honors in the study of letters or who even undertakes the study would belong to any other sect. Confucius is their Prince of Philosophers, and according to them, it was he who discovered the art of philosophy. They do not believe in idol worship. In fact they have no idols. They do, however, believe in one deity who preserves and governs all things on earth. Other spirits they admit, but these are of less restricted domination and receive only minor honors. The real Literati teach nothing relative to the time, the manner, or the author of the creation of the world. We use the word real, or true, because there are some of them, less celebrated, who interpret dreams, but not much faith is placed in them as they deal mostly with trifles and improbable things. Their law contains a doctrine of reward for good done and of punishment for evil, but they seem to limit it to the present life and to apply it to the evil-doer and to his descendants, according to their merits. The ancients scarcely seem to doubt about the immortality of the soul because, for a long time after a death, they make frequent reference to the departed as dwelling in heaven. They say nothing, however, about punishment for the wicked in hell. The more recent Literati teach that the soul ceases to exist when the body does, or a short time after it. They, therefore, make no mention of heaven or of hell. To some of them this seems to be rather a severe doctrine and so this school teaches that only the souls of the just survive. They say that the soul of a man is strengthened by virtue and solidified to endure, and since this is not true of the wicked, their souls vanish, like thin smoke, immediately after leaving the body.

The doctrine most commonly held among the Literati at present seems to me to have been taken from the sect of idols, as promulgated about five centuries ago. This doctrine asserts that the entire universe is composed of a common substance; that the creator of the universe is one in a continuous body, a corpus continuum as it were, together with heaven and earth, men and beasts, trees and plants, and the four elements, and that each individual thing is a member of this body. From this unity of substance they reason to the love that should unite the individual constituents and also that man can become like unto God because he is created one with God. This philosophy we endeavor to refute, not only from reason but also from the testimony of their own ancient philosophers to whom they are indebted for all the philosophy they have.

Although the Literati, as they are called, do recognize one supreme deity, they erect no temples in his honor. No special places are assigned for his worship, consequently no priests or ministers are designated to direct that worship. We do not find any special rites to be observed by all, or precepts to be followed, nor any supreme authority to explain or promulgate laws or to punish violations of laws pertaining to a supreme being. Neither are there any public or private prayers or hymns to be said or sung in honor of a supreme deity. The duty of sacrifice and the rites of worship for this supreme being belong to the imperial majesty alone. This is so true that if anyone else should offer such a sacrifice in usurpation of this right, he would be punished as an intruder upon the duty of the King and as a public enemy.

Two magnificent temples are reserved for the King; one in each of the capital cities, Pekin and Nankin. The sole purpose of these temples is for the King to offer homage to the supreme deity. One of these temples is dedicated to heaven and the other to earth. Formerly it was the custom for the sovereign only to offer any sacrifice in these temples, but now religious functions are conducted in them by the highest magistrates who sacrifice sheep and oxen in great numbers to the gods of heaven and earth. So, too, only ranking magistrates and the highest officers in the realm are permitted to sacrifice to the spirits of the mountains, or the rivers, or of the four sections of the universe. Such religious ceremonies are strictly forbidden to private individuals. The precepts of this law are contained in the Tetrabiblion and in the five books of doctrine. Other than these books, there are no legal codes, excepting certain commentaries on these same volumes.

The most common ceremony practiced by all the Literati, from the King down to the very lowest of them, is that of the annual funeral rites, which we have already described. As they themselves say, they consider this ceremony as an honor bestowed upon their departed ancestors, just as they might honor them if they were living. They do not really believe that the dead actually need the victuals which are placed upon their graves, but they say that they observe the custom of placing them there because it seems to be the best way of testifying their love for their dear departed. Indeed, it is asserted by many that this particular rite was first instituted for the benefit of the living rather than for that of the dead. In this way it was hoped that children, and unlearned adults as well, might learn how to respect and to support their parents who were living, when they saw that parents departed were so highly honored by those who were educated and prominent. This practice of placing food upon the graves of the dead seems to be beyond any charge of sacrilege and perhaps also free from any taint of superstition, because they do not in any respect consider their ancestors to be gods, nor do they petition them for anything or hope for anything from them. However, for those who have accepted the teachings of Christianity, it would seem much better to replace this custom with alms for the poor and for the salvation of souls.

The Temple of Confucius is really the cathedral of the upper lettered and exclusive class of the Literati. The law demands that a temple be built to the Prince of Chinese Philosophers in every city, and in that particular part of the city which has been described as the center of learning. These temples are sumptuously built and adjoining them is the palace of the magistrate who presides over those who have acquired their first literary degree. In the most conspicuous place in the temple there will be a statue of Confucius, or if not a statue, a plaque with his name carved in large letters of gold. Near to this are placed the statues of certain of his disciples whom the Chinese revere as saints, but of an inferior order.

With the coming of each new moon and also at the time of the full moon, the magistrates congregate in this temple, together with those of the baccalaureate order, to do honor to their great master. The ritual in this instance is made up of bowing and of bending the knees, of the lighting of candles, and the burning of incense. Each year on his birthday and at other times fixed by custom, they offer him dishes of food elaborately prepared and assert their thanks for the doctrines contained in his writings. This they do because by means of these doctrines they acquired their literary degrees, and the country acquired the excellent public civil authority invested in the magistracy. They do not recite prayers to Confucius nor do they ask favors of him or expect help from him. They honor him only in the manner mentioned of honoring their respected dead.

This same sect has other temples built to honor the titular spirits of the cities included in the jurisdiction of the local magistrate. Here the magistrate binds himself by solemn oath to do what is right and lawful and to live up to the obligations of his office. This is done by each judge as soon as he is appointed to office, or, as they say, when he is entrusted with the official seal. Viands are offered to these spirits of the cities and incense burned for them but not for the same purpose as this is done for Confucius or for ancestors. The difference is that in these spirits they do recognize the power of a deity who can punish the wicked and reward the good.

The ultimate purpose and the general intention of this sect, the Literati, is public peace and order in the kingdom. They likewise look toward the economic security of the family and the virtuous training of the individual. The precepts they formulate are certainly directive to such ends and quite in conformity with the light of conscience and with Christian truth. They make capital of five different combinations, making up the entire gamut of human relations; namely, the relations of father and son, husband and wife, master and servants, older and younger brothers, and finally, of companions and equals. According to their belief, they alone know how to respect these relationships, which are supposed to be wholly unknown to foreigners, or if known, wholly neglected. Celibacy is not approved of and polygamy is permitted. Their writings explain at length the second precept of charity: “Do not do unto others what you would not wish others to do unto you.” It really is remarkable how highly they esteem the respect and' obedience of children toward parents, the fidelity of servants to a master, and devotion of the young to their elders.

Because of the fact that they neither prohibit nor command anything relative to what should be believed regarding a future life, many who belong to this caste identify the other two cults with their own. They really believe that they are practicing a high form of religion if they are tolerant of falsehood and do not openly spurn or disapprove of an untruth. The Literati deny that they belong to a sect and claim that their class or society is rather an academy instituted for the proper government and general good of the kingdom. One might say in truth that the teachings of this academy, save in some few instances, are so far from being contrary to Christian principles, that such an institution could derive great benefit from Christianity and might be developed and perfected by it.

The second important sect among the Chinese is known as Sciequia or Omitose. The Japanese call it Sciacca and Amidabu, the sect being quite similar in character in both countries. The Japanese also call it the Lex Totoqui. This code of law was brought to China from the West, in the year sixty-five of the Christian era. It was imported from the region of Thiencio, also called Shinto, which was formerly two kingdoms but today is known by the single title of Hindustan, lying between the rivers Indus and Ganges. A written record is extant that the King of China sent legates to this country, after being enlightened in a dream to do so. These messengers brought back the books of the laws and also interpreters to translate them into Chinese. The founders of the sect had died before the doctrine found its way into China. From this it would appear quite evident that this doctrine passed from the Chinese to the Japanese, and it is not at all clear why the Japanese followers of this creed assert that the Sciacca or the Amidabu was introduced into Japan from the kingdom of Siam, where they say it had its origin. It is made quite evident in the books of the followers of this doctrine that Siam was too well known to the Chinese to be mistaken for the far-distant Thiencio in a matter of this kind.

It is historically clear that this doctrine was brought into China at the identical period in which the Apostles were preaching the doctrine of Christ. Bartholomew was preaching in upper India, namely in Hindustan and the surrounding countries, when Thomas was spreading the Gospel in lower India, to the south. It is not beyond the realm of possibility, therefore, that the Chinese, moved and interested by reports of the truths contained in the Christian Gospel, sought to contact it and to learn it from the West. Instead, however, either through error on the part of their legates, or perhaps through ill-will toward the Gospel on the part of the people they visited, the Chinese received a false importation in place of the truth they were seeking.

It would seem that the original authors of the teachings of this second sect had drawn certain of their ideas from our philosophers of the West. For example, they recognize only four elements, to which the Chinese, rather foolishly, add a fifth. According to the latter, the entire material world—men, beasts, plants, and mixed bodies—is composed of the elements of fire, water, earth, metal, and wood. With Democritus and his school, they believe in a multiplicity of worlds. Their doctrine of the transmigration of souls sounds like that of Pythagoras, except that they have added much commentary and produced something still more hazy and obscure. This philosophy seems not only to have borrowed from the West but to have actually caught a glimpse of light from the Christian Gospels. The doctrine of this second sect mentions a certain trinity in which three different gods are fused into one deity, and it teaches reward for the good in heaven and punishment for the wicked in hell. They make so much of celibacy that they seem to reject marriage entirely and it is a common custom with them to abandon their homes and families and to go on pilgrimage to beg alms. In some respects their profane rites resemble our own ecclesiastical ceremonies, as for instance their recitation in chant which hardly differs from our Gregorian. There are statues in their temples and the vestments worn by those offering a sacrifice are not unlike our copes. In reciting prayers they frequently repeat a certain name, which they pronounce Tolome but which they themselves do not understand. Again, it might possibly be that in doing this they wish to honor their cult with the authority of the Apostle Bartholomew.

Whatever ray of truth there may be in their doctrine is, however, unfortunately obscured by clouds of noisome mendacity. Heaven and earth are quite confused in their ideas, as are also a place of reward and one of punishment, in neither of which do they look for an eternity for souls departed. These souls are supposed to be reborn after a certain number of years in some one of the many worlds which they postulate. There they may do penance for their crimes if they wish to make amends for them. This is only one of the many nonsensical doctrines with which they have afflicted the unfortunate country.

Neither meat nor any living thing should be eaten, according to the doctrine of this sect, but very few of its adherents observe this regulation. This violation of a rule and other faults as well can be readily atoned for by almsgiving, and, more than that, they can redeem any soul at all from eternal punishment by means of prayers.

We read that this sect was very much in favor when it first appeared, chiefly because it preached the immortality of the soul and future happiness. On the other hand, the Chinese Literati of the time inform us that as rapidly as this sect outdistanced the others in its approach to truth, the unconscious spread of its vile pest of impostures was just as rapid. Nothing served to undermine the progress of this cult more than the reputation given to it by the Literati. It was their contention, that as a result of its teachings, the King and the princes who first embraced its doctrines perished miserably in a violent death. Every thing it had to do with, they claimed, went into decline and ruin. Instead of good fortune, which the Sciequia promised and boasted of, the Literati made it evident that the country experienced only misfortune and calamity. Despite such beginnings and down to the present time, this sect has increased and decreased according to the varying fervor of the years. The continual multiplication of its books, whether currently introduced from the West or made in China, which is more probable, is the fuel that keeps its ardor ablaze with a popularity that seems impossible to extinguish. The very number and variety of its writings has resulted in such a complicated mixture of doctrine and of nonsensical trifles that even those who profess to believe in it cannot riddle it out.

Traces of the antiquity of this sect are evident today in the great number of its temples, which are usually very ornate in decorations. In these temples one sees enormous and monstrous idols of brass and marble, of wood and of yellow clay. Adjoining the temples there are high towers, built of stone or of brick tile, in which huge bells and other ornaments of great value are preserved.

The sacrificing priests of this cult are called Osciami. Their faces and their heads are kept clean shaven, contrary to the custom of the country. Some of them are on a continual pilgrimage; others lead a very trying life in caves in the mountains. The greater part of them, numbering as one might figure about two or three millions, live in the numerous cloisters of the temples. These latter are supported by alms and by revenues formerly established for that purpose, though they also provide for their keep by personal labor. This special class of temple servants is considered to be, and in reality is, the lowest and most despised caste in the whole kingdom. They come from the very dregs of the populace, and in their youth are sold into slavery to the Osciami. From being servants they become disciples and afterward succeed to the positions and to the emoluments of their masters. This method of succession is accepted in order to preserve the office. Not a single one of them could ever have elected of his own will to join this vile class of cenobites as a means to leading a holy life. Being like unto their masters as to ignorance and inexperience, and with no inclination toward learning and good manners, their natural bent to evil becomes worse with the lapse of time. There may be some exceptions to this way of life but, if so, they constitute the very few among them who have a liking for learning and accomplish something by their own industry. Though not a marrying class, they are so given to sexual indulgence that only the heaviest penalties can deter them from promiscuous living.

The monasteries of the Osciami are graded according to size. Each grade or class is ruled over by a perpetual administrator, who is succeeded in office, according to hereditary law, by one of the disciples whom he has brought into service as a slave. Of these he educates as many as he cares to, or can. There are no superiors, as such, in the separate communities. Each member is permitted to build as many cells or rooms as he may wish to at the particular station to which he is assigned. This is a common practice throughout the land, and particularly so at the court, and these rooms are let out at a good price to strangers who come for instructions. The result of this custom is that these common dwellings, which are used as religious centers, look more like large and noisy hotels, where people convene to spend time in idol worship or in learning the doctrines of this iniquitous cult.

As vile and as abject as they are known to be, even that does not prevent many from calling them in to assist at funeral services. At times also they are summoned by members of their sect for other ceremonies, in which wild animals, birds and beasts and even fishes are set at liberty, on payment of a small fee. The more religiously inclined buy the living animals, and set them free in their native element, in the air or water or in the woods, believing that such an act is an omen of good fortune.

This second sect is acquiring a new impetus, even now in our own times, building many temples and restoring others. Its followers for the most part are women and eunuchs and the common horde, and particularly a certain class who claim to be the more religious followers of the cult, who call themselves Ciaicum, or the observers of the fast. They abstain at all times from meat and fish, and in their homes they venerate a whole collection of idols with frequent praying. So as not to be wholly lacking of some means of livelihood, they answer invitations to recite prayers in the homes of others. Women are not excluded from residence in these religious centers, but they live apart from the men, shave their heads, and do not get married. They are known to the Chinese as Nicu and are not nearly as numerous as the men.

The third religious sect is called Lauzu, and had its origin with a philosopher who was contemporaneous with Confucius. The period of gestation anticipating his birth is supposed to have lasted for eighty years and so he is called Lauzu, or the Old Man Philosopher. He left no writings of his doctrine, nor does it appear that he desired to institute a new or separate cult. After his death, however, certain sectaries, called the Taufu, named him as the head of their sect and compiled various books and commentaries from other religions, and these were written in rather elegant literary style. These enthusiasts, too, have their own religious houses and live as celibates. They buy in their disciples and are as low and dishonest a class as those already described. They do not cut their hair but rather wear it as do the people in general, but they are easily distinguished by the custom of wearing a wooden skullcap on the knot or cluster of hair worn on the top of the head. Some of the followers of this creed, who are married, profess a more religious observance in their homes, where they recite set prayers for themselves and for others. Among their many gods, the devotees of this faith claim that they worship the one lord of heaven, a corporeal being to whom, it would seem, many untoward things are continually happening.

Their books recount their ravings, which we would repeat here, were it not beside our purpose to do so. A single example will give one an idea of what the rest must be like. They tell a story of the present reigning lord of heaven, who is called Ciam and his predecessor Leu. One day Leu came to earth riding on a white dragon, and Ciam, who was a diviner of dreams, invited Leu to a banquet. While the heavenly guest was enjoying himself at table, his host jumped on the white dragon and was carried back to the celestial realm, where he took possession of the throne and still excludes Leu in his efforts to return. The unfortunate outcast did, however, obtain from the usurping King permission to preside over a certain mountain in his kingdom, where they say he now lives but entirely stripped of his former dignity. And so these poor people now admit that they are venerating a false lord, a usurper, and a tyrant.

In addition to the Supreme Deity, this sect has fashioned three other gods, one of whom is Lauzu, himself, the founder of the faith. Thus we have the two sects, each in its own way fashioning a trinity of gods, so that it would seem as if the original parent of falsehood, the father of lies, has not as yet put aside his ambitious desire of divine similitude. They also talk of places of punishment and of reward, but their ideas of such places differ not a little from those of the sectaries already mentioned. This group favors a paradise of body and of soul for its members, and in their temples they have pictures of those who have been taken bodily up into heaven. Certain exercises are prescribed in order to accomplish this phenomenon, such as definite sitting positions accompanied with particular prayers and medicines, by use of which they promise their followers the favor of the gods and eternal life in heaven, or at least a longer life on earth. From such nonsense as this one can easily conclude as to the deceit injected into their delirium.

The special duty of the ministers of this group is to drive demons from homes by means of incantations. This is done in two different ways; by covering the walls of the house with pictures of horrid monsters drawn in ink on yellow paper and by filling the house with a bedlam of uncanny yelling and screaming and in this manner making demons of themselves. Bringing down rain from heaven in time of drought, stopping it when rain is too abundant, and preventing public and private calamities in general are some of the powers they claim to possess. If what is promised really came to pass, then those who permit themselves to be attracted by the promises would have a reason for their interest. Since, however, these impostors are invariably wrong in everything they foretell, it is difficult to understand what excuse of pretext can be alleged for following them, by men who otherwise are sufficiently intelligent. Unless we include everything they say under the common designation of falsehood, it would seem that some of them had acquired the secret of a magic art.

The ministers of this sect live in the royal temples of heaven and earth, and it is part of their office to be present at all sacrifices made in these temples either by the King himself or by a magistrate representing him. This, of course, serves to increase their prestige and their authority. The orchestra for such occasions is also composed of the ministers. Every musical instrument known to the Chinese will be included in this assembly, but the music they produce sounds decidedly off key to European ears. These same musicians are frequently invited to funeral services which they attend in ornate vestments, playing upon flutes and other musical instruments. The consecration of new temples and the direction of public processions of supplicants through the streets also come within their jurisdiction. These processions are ordered by the civil authorities of the towns, at stated times, and at the expense of the local neighborhood.

This sect recognized Ciam as its original high priest, and he is supposed to have handed down his office and the dignity that accompanies it, by right of hereditary succession, through a thousand years to the present day. The office itself seems to have had its origin with a certain magician, who lived in a cave in the province of Quiamsi, where his descendants still live and where the secrets of his art are handed on to his children, if there be any truth in the story. Their present leader spends most of his time in Pekin. He is a recognized favorite of the King and is even admitted into the most secret chambers of the palace for ceremonies of exorcism, if perchance suspicion should arise that these places are infested with evil spirits. He is carried through the streets in an open palanquin, wears the paraphernalia of the highest magistrates, and receives a fat annual stipend from the crown. One of our neophytes informs us that the present-day prelates of this sect are so ignorant that they do not even know the unholy hymns and rites of their own order. They have no jurisdiction whatsoever over the people. Their authority is confined to the subministers, of the Tausus, of their cult and to their own religious residence, where their power is supreme. Like the sectaries already treated, a great number of their cenobites, in an effort to formulate precepts for a longer life, spend much time experimenting in alchemy, in imitation of their holy ones, who they say have handed down certain precepts of this double science.

These three sects embrace about all the capital superstitions of this pagan people, but the vanity of their human folly does not cease here. As time goes on, through the influence of their leaders, each of these sources of superstition gives rise to so many streams of deceit and deception, that under these three captions one could number nearer to three hundred different and disparate religious sects. The frequent innovations go from bad to worse by the daily augmentation of corrupt practices and rules, of which the members of the sects take advantage for loose and licentious living.

Humvu, the founder of the present reigning family, ordained that these three laws, namely the sects, should be preserved for the good of the kingdom. This he did in order to conciliate the followers of each sect. In legislating for their continuance, however, he made it of strict legal requirement that the cult of the Literati should have preference Over the others, and that they alone should be entrusted with the administration of public affairs. Thus it happens that no sect is allowed to work for the extinction of another. The rulers make it a practice to cultivate the devotion of all three of them, using them in their own interest when need be, and conciliating each in turn by renovating their old temples or by building new ones. The wives of the King are usually more devoted to the sect of the idols, conferring alms upon the ministers and even supporting a whole institution of them, beyond the palace walls, in order to profit by their prayers.

The number of idols in evidence throughout the kingdom of China is simply incredible. Not only are they on exhibition in the temples, where a single temple might contain thousands of them, but in nearly every private dwelling. Idols are assigned a definite place in a private home, according to the custom of the locality. In public squares, in villages, on boats, and through the public buildings, this common abomination is the first thing to strike the attention of a spectator. Yet, it is quite certain that comparatively few of these people have any faith in this unnatural and hideous fiction of idol worship. The only thing they are persuaded of in this respect is, that if their external devotion to idols brings them no good, at least it can do them no harm.

In conclusion to our consideration of the religious sects, at the present time, the most commonly accepted opinion of those who are at all educated among the Chinese is, that these three laws or cults really coalesce into one creed and that all of them can and should be believed. In such a judgment, of course, they are leading themselves and others into the very distracting error of believing that the more different ways there are of talking about religious questions, the more beneficial it will be for the public good. In reality they finally end up by accomplishing something altogether different from what they expected. In believing that they can honor all three laws at the same time, they find themselves without any law at all, because they do not sincerely follow any one of them. Most of them openly admit that they have no religion, and so by deceiving themselves in pretending to believe, they generally fall into the deepest depths of utter atheism.

 

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Source: From China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Matthew Ricci: 1583-1610 by Matthew Ricci, translated by Louis J. Gallagher S.J., copyright 1942, 1953 and renewed 1970 by Louis J. Gallagher, S.J. Used by permission of Random House, Inc.