Pirke Avot

Explanation and Analysis of the Document

Traditionally, a smaller unit within a chapter of the Mishnah (similar to a verse in the Bible) is called a mishnah. As most of the material contained in Pirke Avot was handed down orally over a long period of time, it cannot be assumed for all sayings (mishnahs) attributed to named sages that they actually originated with these sages. Certain sayings appear to be traditional proverbs, of which variations already appear in the Hebrew Bible or in other sources, such as Greek works. Some sayings are attributed to different sages in different rabbinic sources. Many sayings are transmitted anonymously. All this is typical for traditional rabbinic literature.

Chapter I

This first chapter of Pirke Avot is known as the “chain of traditions,” linking Moses, who received the Torah at Mount Sinai, with the generation of sages before Jehuda ha-Nasi. This is done by establishing an uninterrupted chain of tradents—people who transmitted the material to successive contemporary audiences. The tradents are said to have preserved the (Oral) Torah and handed it down from generation to generation, all the way from Moses to Rabbi Jehuda ha-Nasi, who is mentioned in the first mishnah of chapter 2.

Moses, Jehoshua, the elders, and the prophets—mentioned in mishnah 1—are figures from the Hebrew Bible. Moses led the people of Israel out of slavery in Egypt on a journey of forty years through the desert toward their homeland, Israel. On their way in the desert, they received the Torah on Mount Sinai. Jehoshua, or Joshua, was a disciple of Moses who became the leader of the Israelite tribes after Moses’ death. The elders are a body of leaders, who, after Joshua, governed the Israelite people upon their entrance in the Land of Israel. The prophets are Jeremiah, Isaiah, Ezekiel, and so on, whose books are contained in the Bible. According to Jewish tradition, “the men of the Great Synagogue” were a legal body in the time of the return from the Babylonian Exile and the rebuilding of the Temple (515 BCE). What is important here is the unbroken chain of tradition: From Moses until the return from the exile, the Torah was preserved and transmitted by trustworthy people. In the following mishnahs and in the following chapters, this process of transmission continued until the collection of Oral Torah that eventually became the Mishnah.

Besides the chain of transmission, the first chapter offers examples of the content of the traditions that were passed down through the ages as well as the substance of the teachings of the sages who lived out the wisdom of the Torah. Mishnah 1 of the first chapter ends with three pieces of advice from the sages: “Be deliberate in judgment; and raise up many disciples; and make a fence to the Torah.” This threefold pattern appears repeatedly throughout the chapter. Numerical lists are characteristic for oral traditions: they help in ordering and memorizing the material.

The third wise saying from mishnah 1, “make a fence to the Torah,” refers to the rules that are established to safeguard the precise observation of biblical laws. For example, in Deuteronomy 25:3, a maximum of forty floggings is mentioned for certain types of trespassing. The rabbis make this thirty-nine floggings, so that there would be less chance that the number of floggings would inadvertently surpass forty.

The three pillars of the Jewish religion cited in mishnah 2 are Torah (study); Temple Worship, which after the destruction of the Temple was replaced by prayers in the synagogue; and charity. All three must be balanced carefully in Judaism. Somebody who devotes his attention only to Torah study and not to God (through prayer) or to other people (through charity) is not considered a good Jew. Similar sayings are found throughout the tractate, for example, in Pirke Avot 2:2.

Jose ben Jo’ezer and Jose ben Jochanan, mentioned in mishnah 4, are the first of the famous five “pairs.” These are the duos of teachers who continued the “chain of tradition” until the great sages Hillel and Shammai. It is characteristic for the rabbis to operate in pairs. They were study partners, often of opposite disposition, who discussed matters of Torah and made legal decisions together. Even in the twenty-first century, it is customary in Jewish learning to study in pairs. Discussion is believed to encourage deeper insight into the subject matter.

The importance of education, study, and learning in general is evident in mishnah 4. “Let thy house be a meeting-house for the wise,” the sages say, “and drink their words with thirstiness.” A love of learning and a desire for knowledge are viewed as fundamental attributes of a righteous man. Similarly, the advice to make oneself a master (or a teacher) and an associate (or a study partner) in mishnah 6 is typical for rabbinic learning, where, as mentioned earlier, learned sages formed “schools” of disciples and students studied in pairs. Mishnah 7 makes it clear that good or bad social contacts have a profound effect on one’s moral life. A good and righteous Jew should associate with like-minded individuals. Note how sayings about Torah study alternate with ethical sayings. Torah study and a good way of life are equally important for the rabbinic sage.

In the midst of these sayings about learning is a cautionary message: The third saying of Jose ben Jo’ezer in mishnah 5 is in line with a general contempt for women in the ancient world (among Greeks, Jews, and Christians). The passage between square brackets (beginning with “His own wife”) is probably a later addition, as shown by the disruption of the threefold pattern of sayings. “Gehinnom” is the Jewish equivalent of hell, and women were viewed by the ancients as a source of temptation that might very well derail a man’s study of the Torah, which would ultimately lead to his downfall.

Mishnahs 8 and 9 deal with practices in the courtroom. One of the scholarly theories about the origin of Pirke Avot is that it served as moral code for judges and magistrates. Legal commentary gives way to political commentary in mishnah 10, with the latter two sayings of Shema’iah referring to the complicated relationship of the Jews with the Roman authorities. “Hate lordship” means that one should not try to obtain a powerful (political) position. The third saying warns against collaboration with the government. There are individual differences between the rabbinic sages in their attitude toward the authorities. Politically as well as ideologically, the rabbis were not a uniform body. A similar saying is found in Avot 2:3.

In mishnah 11, “the place of evil waters” from which one might “drink” is a form of allegorical speech, the meaning of which has posed a problem in all traditional commentaries. It probably refers to some sort of heresy. Rabbinic Judaism was only one form of Judaism in the first centuries. Several Jewish religious movements existed, which often considered each other heretical.

Hillel and Shammai (in misnahs 12–15) are the most famous pair of sages of the late Second Temple Period. They were Pharisees, the predecessors of the rabbinic sages. Hillel is known for his patient and gentle disposition and his leniency in Jewish law. Shammai is known as the impatient and strict teacher. In later tradition, such as in the Talmud, the rulings of Hillel usually prevail over those of Shammai, probably because of the former’s leniency. This prevalence is already made clear by the fact that nine sayings of Hillel are quoted here, as opposed to only three of Shammai. Both founded a school of students that continued their way of interpretation of the Torah. Mishnah 14 contains an enigmatic but very famous saying by Hillel. It suggests that everyone is, in the first place, responsible for his or her own actions and that one should take up that responsibility as soon as that awareness arises. It is interesting that Shammai, who is usually portrayed as a stern figure, recommends a “pleasant expression of countenance” in mishnah 15. Perhaps, as some observers have suggested, his true nature was more amiable than his later reputation, which no doubt was influenced by the school of Hillel.

Rabban Gamliel, thought to be Hillel’s grandson, is known in Christian circles as the teacher of the Apostle Paul (Acts 22:3). The injunction not to tithe “by estimation” in mishnah 16 refers to the obligatory donation of one-tenth of one’s harvest to the poor. This should be done in a complete and precise fashion because the poor’s welfare depends on it. Shime’on ben Gamliel (mishnah 18) seems to be the same as “Shime’on his son” (mishnah 17), ben meaning “son of” in Hebrew. Shime’on ben Gamliel was active during the Jewish War (68 CE) and is mentioned by the Jewish-Roman historian Flavius Josephus. Compare the threefold saying in mishnah 18 with the one in mishnah 2. Shime’on ben Gamliel’s is more universalist, less specifically Jewish.

Chapter II

The second chapter jumps ahead chronologically by about 130 years, to Rabbi Jehuda ha-Nasi (Rabbi), the final editor of the Mishnah, and his son, also called Rabban Gamliel. Rabbi and his son’s sayings focus on the study of Torah, a religious act for which one will be rewarded—if not in this life, then in the world to come—and on an ethical and honest way of life. The saying of Gamliel in mishnah 2 puts Torah study in its proper perspective: It should be balanced with the normal daily business of life.

In mishnah 5, the text jumps back again in time to Hillel the Elder, mentioned in chapter 1. Some scholars think this is another Hillel, the grandson of Rabbi. Whichever is the case, it is clear that the sayings of the earliest sages are juxtaposed with those of some of the latest authorities quoted in the Mishnah and that all are seen as part of the same tradition.

Jochanan ben Zakkai, cited in mishnah 8, was the leading sage at the end of the Second Temple Period and is considered the founder of rabbinic Judaism. According to rabbinic legend, he fled Jerusalem during the revolt against Rome in 68 CE, hidden in a coffin and carried by his students out of the city walls. He is said to have been brought before Vespasian, then a Roman officer, and predicted that he would become emperor. As a reward, he was allowed to open a rabbinic academy in Javne, outside Jerusalem. In this and the following mishnahs, his five most important students are mentioned, each showing a different desirable characteristic for a Torah student: “Plastered cistern” refers to a great capacity for memory and the ability to retain knowledge. “Welling spring” points to intellectual creativity.

Mishnahs 10–14 are sayings by the five students of Jochanan ben Zakkai. Again the contents of the sayings vary between more religious and more worldly oriented insights, in line with the rabbinic idea that Torah affects every aspect of life. The “Shema” and the “Prayer”—that is, the Eighteen Benedictions Prayer—mentioned in mishnah 13 are the two main Jewish prayers, said every morning and evening, whether in the synagogue or at home. Rabbi Shime’on points out here that one should pray with intention and not out of a sense of obligation. This is pertinent for Jewish prayer, which is said at fixed times, with always more or less the same words.

“Epicurus” in mishnah 14 is a rabbinic term for an unbeliever. It is derived from the name of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus (341–270 BCE), whose philosophical school of Epicureanism stressed the pursuit of pleasure without the fear of punishment in the afterlife. According to Epicurus, the soul ceases to exist when a person dies, making anxiety over retribution for past deeds unnecessary. Rabbi Tarfon’s sayings in mishnahs 15 and 16 are examples of metaphoric speech. The “Master of the house” is God, “work” refers to Torah study, and the “workmen” are the students.

Chapter V

This chapter consists mainly of anonymous sayings in numerical groupings. Mishnahs 1–5, featuring the number 10, treats events described in the Hebrew Bible in chronological order. The “ten sayings” by which the world was created refer to the tenfold “and God said” elements in the biblical story of Creation (Genesis 1:3–2:18). The ten temptations of Abraham, the ten plagues, and the ten miracles in the time of the Exodus from Egypt are all biblical facts “counted” by the rabbis in order to make lists of ten. The Sanctuary is the Temple, which at the time of the writing of Pirke Avot had been destroyed. The ten miracles mentioned here are a nostalgic idealization of the sacrifices and events that took place in the Temple.

The things created “between the suns” in mishnah 6 are extraordinary creations that occurred at twilight between the sixth day and the beginning of the Sabbath day, according to the Creation story in Genesis. This creation at twilight is a rabbinic idea, not found in the Bible, but most of the facts described (the manna, the ram, and so on) are biblical. The “tongs made with tongs” reference addresses one of those logical dilemmas that has plagued believers throughout the centuries. It takes a pair of tongs to shape a second pair over a fire. Who made the first pair? It could only have been an act of God, made not during the six days in which he created the natural world, but as a special gift to allow man to cultivate the world.

Mishnahs 7 and 8 feature the number 7, which often has symbolic meaning in the Bible, denoting something that is “whole,” such as the days of the week, culminating in the Sabbath, and the cycle of seven years, with the seventh year being referred to as the Sabbath Year. The “seventh year fruits” at the end of mishnah 8 refer to the Sabbath Year (Leviticus 25:1–7), during which the land should lay bare. Only fruits and vegetables that grow spontaneously or crops stored from the harvest of the sixth year can be eaten during this time. Transgressions of this law would lead to divine punishment.

Mishnahs 8 and 9 in chapter 5 deal with divine punishments in the form of natural disasters that will come upon Israel if the people do not obey the biblical laws. The laws dealt with here all have a social function: they are designed to protect the poor and to divide the natural resources over all inhabitants of the land. The “tithing” mentioned in mishnah 8 refers to the 10 percent of each crop that an Israelite farmer had to give by way of Temple tax, used to pay the priests but also to help needy people. After the fall of the Temple, there was still a habit of donating 10 percent of one’s income to charity to help people in need. Mishnah 9 also features a thematic transition from the number 7 to the number 4. Again, the laws mentioned here pertain to helping the poor.

The sayings in mishnahs 10–15 are associated with the number 4 as well and contain ethical and pedagogical principles. According to some scholars who see Pirke Avot as a work designed mainly for Torah students, these sayings may be the reason why this chapter was included in the tractate. “The character of Sodom” refers to the sins of Sodom related in Genesis 18–19; the main sins of Sodom in the Jewish tradition are lack of hospitality and taking advantage of strangers. For people to care only about their own good is apparently judged as worse than their being “indifferent” by some sages. ’Am ha-arets, literally meaning “people of the land,” denotes illiterate, simple people. Mishnah 14 again focuses on the necessary balance between Torah study and living according to the principles of the Torah.

Mishnah 15 compares four types of students to the way various household tools handle different types of food. The sponge is a metaphor for one who sucks up knowledge and retains it, not unlike the plastered cistern in Avot 2:8. The funnel is one who learns easily but forgets quickly. The strainer is the student who remembers the wrong things and forgets the good. The “bolt-sieve” student does the opposite: He retains the good information and lets go of unnecessary things. Mishnahs 16–19 are structured according to a similar pattern: Two opposite kinds of attitudes are presented, which are then illustrated with reference to two biblical or rabbinic figures.

For instance, of the two types of love mentioned in mishnah 16, the last type does not depend on a transitory thing, such as beauty or money. Possibly the love for Torah is intended here. The examples come from the Bible: Amon, the son of King David (2 Sam. 13), was in love with his half-sister, Tamar, who was very beautiful. After he raped her, it is said that he hated her with the same intensity as he had loved her before. His father, David, to the contrary, had an ever-lasting friendship with King Saul’s son Jonathan, despite the fact that Saul was at times his enemy.

“Gainsaying” in mishnah 17 is controversy. The controversies between Hillel and Shammai, discussed in chapter 1, advanced insight in the Torah because they showed different standpoints and interpretations of the precepts therein. Number 16 relates how the Levite Korach led a rebellion against Moses and Aaron, questioning their leadership. God punished Korach and his family by having the earth swallow them up alive. Similarly, mishnah 18 demonstrates by means of the examples of Moses and King Jerobeam how a leader can make his subjects righteous or sinful by the example of his own behavior. Jerobeam was guilty of idolatry, and the people followed his lead.

Mishnah 19 picks up the numerical line, this time focusing on the number 3 in presenting the biblical figures Abraham and Bile’am in opposition. Bile’am is a non-Israelite prophet with a mixed reputation in Jewish tradition. On the one hand, he prophesied Israel’s victory in Numbers 22–24, speaking in the name of the God of Israel. On the other, later Jewish tradition made him the prototype of the antiprophet. This might be owing to the fact that, immediately after the presentation of the Bile’am story in Numbers 21–24, the Bible relates how the Israelites started to commit harlotry with foreign women (Numbers 25).

The last mishnahs in this chapter appear as loose ends, featuring the sayings of three rather unknown sages. Jehuda ben Thema’s saying in mishnah 20 might have been linked to the previous mishnah because of the occurrence of Gehinnom and the Garden of Eden. A renowned sixteenth-century Jewish commentator, Judah Loew ben Bezalel, a rabbi also known as the Maharal of Prague, explains Jehuda’s saying as follows: Be tough-minded like a leopard in deciding to do a good deed; be light like an eagle to take action; be swift as a deer to approach the good deed quickly, dodging and dissuading voices from within and without; and be strong like a lion to complete the task as a lion that consumes its prey. The “building of the city in our days” refers to the reconstruction of Jerusalem with its Temple. A similar prayer is still said in synagogue liturgy today.

Mishnah 21 is not included in all versions of Pirke Avot. As it is, it gives insight in the rabbinic study curriculum still followed in traditional Jewish circles: First the Bible is studied, starting at age five, and then the Mishnah, at age ten. Thirteen is the bar mitzvah age, when a boy (in progressive circles also a girl) is considered old enough to keep the religious commandments.

The famous saying of Ben Bag-bag refers to the Torah: According to rabbinic ideology, the Torah is self-sufficient. The notion that you can “turn it and turn it” points to the never-ending process of Torah interpretation, in which new discoveries will be made each time it is studied. Both Ben Bag-bag and Ben He-he are believed to have been converts to Judaism and disciples of Hillel. In another rabbinic source, these two last sayings are attributed to Hillel, showing again that this is traditional wisdom literature, the voice of a group rather than of individuals.