Benito Mussolini: “The Doctrine of Fascism”

Impact

At first glance, Mussolini’s essay could be seen as resembling Karl Marx’s Communist Manifesto of 1848, which was a prophecy, a threat, and a description of a new political force. It could also be compared to Adolf Hitler’s autobiographical Mein Kampf and Vladimir Lenin’s What Is to Be Done? The works of Marx, Hitler, and Lenin, however, predated events. In contrast, the essay on Fascism was written after the system had taken root. Fascism as a means of governing and consolidating power predated this article by ten years, so it cannot be seen as a prediction of things to come or as a blueprint. As Fascism changed in what many saw as a mercurial fashion, the essay cannot be construed as a “snapshot” of a political system or philosophy undergoing a rational evolution.

The reasons for this lack of impact are important, however, and reveal a great deal about Mussolini and Italian Fascism. As Mussolini himself states here, Fascism in Italy was based on action, not doctrine. Action was taken to change events. After the action, one can find the doctrine in the results. Therefore, the article can be seen as a justification for what has been done as well as a general code of conduct and outlook required of individuals.

The essay’s rhetoric and its calls to action are important, for once one reads it without trying to develop a rigorous intellectual picture and imagines it as a speech, it makes more sense and tells readers a great deal about Fascist Italy, its imagery and emotional content. The rousing tones and calls to action, the strong opposition to non-Fascists, and its promise of glory to those who subordinate themselves to the state are the main thrusts of the essay. The intent is to provide images of dedication and movement toward the state’s goal. The word choices and the rhetoric create a dramatic performance that illustrates well what Fascism was. The essay gives readers an idea of the tone of Mussolini’s speeches at highly charged political rallies in a way similar to the dramatic manipulation and frenzy generated at Hitler’s Nazi Party rallies of the same decade.

As a practical phenomenon, Fascism had up to this point (1932) exerted a profound impact on Italy. Fascism in Italy came to dominate every aspect of life. The changes in government and eventual expansion of Italy’s role in foreign policy along with economic, armaments, and public works projects were to be expected. What Fascism also did, however, was to permeate every aspect of life to include social and educational activities. The Fascist state was glorified, becoming a kind of religion, just as Mussolini stated it must. Italians went along with Fascism, but not enthusiastically. There was not much choice, as political dissent was monitored and punished, though not as stringently as in Germany.

In the next thirteen years the effects would become far more dramatic not only for Italy but also for all of Europe. Italy became an active participant in European politics in the 1930s, regaining much of the status that it had lost after what it had considered betrayal by the other victorious allies at the end of World War I. In 1935, Mussolini ordered the Italian army to invade Ethiopia, which it then conquered and occupied until being driven out by the British in 1941. Although Italy was initially opposed to some of Hitler’s foreign policy objectives, the country gradually came to match its objectives to those of Germany. In 1936 both nations became involved in the Spanish civil war, supporting the future winner, Francisco Franco. Mussolini became an ally to Hitler’s successful attempt in 1938 to incorporate a portion of Czechoslovakia into Germany. Two years later Italy joined Hitler in declaring war on Britain and France.

The active support for Fascism waned with the entry of Italy into World War II, and gradually—especially after Italy surrendered to the Allies in 1943—active military resistance commenced against the Fascist and German elements still fighting the Allies. Surrender did not bring an end to Italy’s troubles, as it was now the scene of battles between the Allies and Germany in the south and between anti-Fascist partisans and Germans in the north. By the conclusion of the war in 1945, Italy was devastated. Mussolini, after having been rescued by the Germans from possible captivity under the Allies after his deposition, would be executed in May of that year. The destruction of Italy, perhaps the most significant impact of all, would take several years to repair.