Wang Kon: Ten Injunctions

Explanation and Analysis of the Document

The introductory line of the Ten Injunctions states that they were dictated to Pak Surhui in 943. However, it is likely that the injunctions were actually written in or after 1013. In either case, the introduction, though starting humbly enough, compares T’aejo to two virtuous sage-kings from Chinese history, Yao and Shun. This comparison shows the influence that Confucianism, which looked to the reigns of these kings as models to be emulated, had on Korea. The Han Dynasty (206 bce–220 ce) was also admired in both China and Korea, and the fact that its founder rose from humble beginnings was used to justify T’aejo’s own rise to power from similar origins. After stressing how T’aejo had devoted himself to the country, the document emphasizes his concern for the continuity of his dynasty, explaining why he was giving his injunctions. Thus T’aejo is portrayed as a virtuous ruler. It was important to stress his virtue in order to legitimize his coup against Kungye, his acceptance of the surrender of the last Silla king, and the continuation of his dynasty. This emphasis on the dynastic founder’s virtue reflected on his successor, Hyonjong, and his policies, which were portrayed as T’aejo’s own, making it difficult, if not impossible, to oppose them.

The edicts offer guidance on how to rule Korea morally and effectively, providing insight into the Koryo worldview, especially its religious understanding of the world. The admonitions found in the Ten Injunctions appealed to various religions: Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism, as well as native religion. Geomancy, though not a full-blown religion, has religious characteristics and was also deemed an important source of power and legitimacy and therefore plays a prominent role in the edicts. Despite the often vast differences between these belief systems, they all made up a part of the Koryo worldview. The Koreans of the era apparently were not bothered by these discrepancies. In fact, they seem to have embraced the edicts as sources of legitimacy and power. Because of the plurality of choices, Koreans were able, by creatively and flexibly applying these different belief systems, to find guidance to solve the problems they faced. In addition, religion, rather than being separate from the government, was a subordinate part of it, used to legitimize state authority and as a source of supernatural power. While this view on the relationship between religion and the state would continue during the Choson Dynasty (1392–1910), Neo-Confucianism would stand as the sole orthodoxy, with other religions demoted to a secondary status.

The first injunction emphasizes the importance of the Buddha (though it probably refers not only to the historic Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, but indeed to all Buddhas) in the affairs of state. Koreans believed that the Buddha could intervene powerfully in the world and assist people, either because they were virtuous and asked for help or because they (or monks on their behalf) performed certain rituals. Because of the power of the Buddha, the state actively supported the religion. However, institutionally speaking, Buddhism was not united. There were various sects that disagreed about Buddhist doctrine and competed for state support. If the Buddhist sects aligned with different factions within the government in a struggle over resources, there could be serious problems. Corruption would increase, and conflicts could even become violent. Therefore, this injunction calls for the state to make use of the power of the Buddha while keeping Buddhist institutions firmly under control by preventing them from interfering in politics.

The sixth injunction also deals specifically with Buddhism as well as native religion. Two festivals, the Yondung (Lantern) festival, which celebrated the birthday of the historical Buddha, and the P’algwan (Eight Prohibitions) festival, in which spirits from indigenous Korean religion were worshipped, were of such importance that any attempt to modify or abolish them was forbidden. Such celebrations served in part to repay past favors granted by the spirits and the Buddha and to ask for their continued protection. In the tenth century King Songjong had abolished these two festivals because he deemed them too expensive, but King Hyonjong reinstated them. The reinstatement of the festivals is important evidence that the Ten Injunctions were likely written during Hyonjong’s reign and not T’aejo’s, in order to justify Hyonjong’s policies.

The second injunction also discusses Buddhism, but in the context of geomancy (feng shui in Chinese, p’ungsu in Korean). According to geomantic beliefs, energy that flows through the earth can affect people’s lives positively or negatively. Human activity can in turn affect this energy. Thus the building of temples could help increase positive energy. However, building too many temples could cause harm. The edict points to the fall of the kingdom of Silla as proof. Therefore, there were to be no temples constructed other than those established by Toson, a Buddhist monk famous for his knowledge of geomancy. It should also be pointed out that a proliferation of temples caused economic problems. When a temple was established, it was granted land, which was used to maintain it and to support the monks who prayed and meditated there. The government did not collect taxes on such land. Therefore, the more temples there were, the less money there was in the state budget.

The importance of geomantic principles can also be seen in the fifth edict. Here the power of the topography of P’yongyang, which served as a secondary capital during the Koryo and which is the modern-day capital of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, is credited with helping in the establishment and maintenance of the dynasty. Because of the city’s importance, kings were enjoined to visit it often. P’yongyang was also strategically significant and central to protecting Korea from both foreign invasions and domestic upheavals. Neglect of the secondary capital could lead to serious trouble for the dynasty. In fact, Hyonjong often relied on powerful officials serving in P’yongyang for help.

A very different application of geomantic beliefs is evident in the eighth injunction. The topography of an area in southwestern Korea— which was a part of the former kingdom of Paekce—is used to explain the supposed treachery of the inhabitants of that region. That treachery, combined with their bitterness at suffering conquest by T’aejo, meant that they should be excluded from power. Similarly former slaves and those engaged in occupations that were looked down upon (such as butchers and tanners) were forbidden from entering government. Because these people were considered treacherous by nature, it was believed that they would serve the powerful rather than act virtuously. This edict shows how much Koreans were concerned with status and the belief that high status tended to equate with virtue. However, because one of T’aejo’s favorite wives was from the southwest (at this time Korean men could have more than one wife), it is doubtful that the ruler would take such a negative view. In contrast, Hyonjong suffered poor treatment from the people from this region when he fled from the Liao invasion—further evidence that this edict was written during Hyonjong’s reign. The prohibition against people from the southwest serving in government seems to have been largely ignored. However, the restriction against former slaves and those serving in dishonorable trades was followed with only rare exceptions.

As seen from the introduction to the Ten Injunctions, Confucianism was an important part of the Koryo worldview and is discussed in the third edict, which focuses on the issue of succession. The succession of kings was especially important because Korean monarchs had several wives, and there were often many possible heirs to the throne. It was believed that the ancient Chinese sage-king Yao chose Shun as his successor because his own sons were ill suited for the throne. However, choosing a successor based on merit rather than by lineage could lead to conflict, as rival claimants could put themselves forward as the most virtuous. This edict shows a kind of balance between these two principles: maintaining the throne in one family for the sake of stability while establishing a mechanism to prevent a wholly unsuitable candidate from becoming king. Koryo made use of Confucianism but departed from its teachings when doing so seemed necessary for practical reasons.

The seventh edict is also Confucian in nature, as seen from its emphasis on having the support of “the people” (that is, the commoners). The common people were expected to pay taxes and provide labor to the state, typically through military service or construction projects. If the people were taxed too heavily or were expected to perform too much labor, they would suffer and might even rebel against the state. Furthermore, according to Confucianism, a monarch was expected to be a virtuous man who ruled for the good of the people. Thus he should minimize expenses, both state and personal, in order to lighten the burden of taxation and labor on the people. Central to virtuous rule was the selection of good ministers who would serve the king. Such ministers were not to flatter but to offer constructive criticism so that the king could overcome his faults and grow in virtue. In order to have such officials and to avoid overburdening the common people, rewards and punishments must be applied carefully. Doing so actually put one in touch with the dynamic harmony of the universe, the forces of yin (represented by such things as the dark, the feminine, and the earth) and yang (represented by such things as the light, the masculine, and the sky). These forces are typically associated with Daoism. Thus the principles of government were closely linked with the principles that governed the universe.

The tenth injunction reflects the Confucian philosophy of using the past as a guide for how to act in the present. Just as Confucianism held up the ancient Chinese sage-kings as models for contemporary monarchs, so too did Confucianism look to history in order to discover the principles necessary to govern in a moral and therefore effective way. One prominent figure in Confucianism was the Duke of Zhou, who was consistently described as a virtuous and loyal man. He acted as regent for his nephew, King Cheng, to whom he wrote Against Luxurious Ease, giving advice to the young king on how to rule virtuously. Like the Chinese, Koreans held this work to be of great importance, and this edict calls for Koryo kings to post it on a wall and reflect on it often. This injunction is illustrative of the high moral standards expected of kings to enable them to govern well.

Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, and geomancy were all belief systems that were imported into Korea from China. At this time Song Dynasty China had an important influence on Korea, and the Khitan, who founded the Liao Dynasty (a state located in what is now Manchuria), possessed a flourishing Buddhist culture, which many Koreans admired. The proximity to these two civilizations enabled Korea to partake of their cultures as well as to spread its own. This closeness also gave Koreans a sense of their own identity as a separate people. Many Koreans felt threatened, however. How much could they borrow from other cultures while still remaining Korean? The fourth injunction tries to strike a balanced approach to this problem, recommending limited borrowing from China while asserting that because Koreans were different from the Chinese, they need not slavishly imitate their neighbors. The Khitan people, on the other hand, are presented in a very negative light, and their customs were not to be adopted. T’aejo, while at times being at odds with the Khitan, does not seem to have taken such a negative approach. On the other hand, Hyonjong’s throne was threatened by the Khitan, and the ruler was forced to flee the capital when they invaded the country. Thus it would seem that this edict is representative of Hyonjong’s rather than T’aejo’s time.

The ninth injunction is a very general admonition to avoid corruption. There is a specific concern with nepotism because selecting officials based on family connections rather than on ability could lead to the serious mishandling of government affairs. For the public good and for the security of the state, it was necessary to have virtuous and competent officials. This philosophy was especially important because Korea had hostile neighbors, especially the Khitan. Therefore, this edict calls for special attention to be paid to the military. Many soldiers were conscripts who were serving far from home. If they were not periodically given rewards or recognized for their service, their morale would be low, reducing their capability as a fighting force. Moreover, if they were treated very poorly, they might even rebel. In order to maintain the state, it was necessary to keep their happiness and welfare in mind.