Wang Kon: Ten Injunctions

Impact

The Ten Injunctions achieved their initial purpose. They helped to legitimate Hyonjong’s rise to power and maintain him on the throne. Some immediate aims, such as the restoration of the Yondung and P’algwan festivals, were achieved. Likewise, the emphasis on military preparedness in the edicts seems also to have paid off as another Khitan invasion in 1018 was soundly defeated by Koryo forces. Curiously, though, once they were public, the edicts could be used in unexpected ways. For instance, in the early twelfth century, when King Yejong wanted to imitate China by introducing money into circulation in Korea, officials resisted him by referring to the fourth edict to argue that they should continue to follow Korean custom in that matter.

In many ways the injunctions were contending with forces that were difficult if not impossible to contain. For instance, Hyonjong’s successors showed less of a concern for military affairs despite the attention that the injunctions demanded be paid to them. In 1170 neglect and disrespect for the army led to a coup by powerful military officials. The resulting decades of military dictatorship reduced the kings of Korea to puppet rulers. Eventually they regained their power, but not without the help of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty. The Mongols, who first invaded the Korean Peninsula in 1231, made their own demands on Koryo, infringing on the authority of the kings. The injunctions dealing with Buddhism were also departed from. The continued building of Buddhist temples and consequent alienation of taxable land, despite repeated royal prohibitions, drained the state treasury. Despite restrictions to the contrary, monks were able to become involved in politics, in part as allies of the king to counterbalance the often powerful government bureaucracy. One notable example is the monk Myoch’ong, a favorite of King Injong. In 1135 Myoch’ong staged a rebellion after he failed to have the capital moved to P’yongyang.

It is impossible to tell whether the injunctions had any effect on these matters. It would be reasonable to surmise that they did impose a restraining influence. Nevertheless, the forces they sought to restrain were too powerful, and the successor to Koryo, the Choson Dynasty, sought to eliminate them. During the Choson Dynasty the military was completely subordinated to civilian rule, so there were no successful military coups as there had been in Koryo. Monks were banned from even entering the capital, the different Buddhist sects were forcibly reduced by amalgamation into two, and much of the temple land was seized. These developments were made possible in part by the rise of a new religion, Neo-Confucianism. Many adherents to the faith heavily criticized Buddhist doctrine and practice, providing a justification for the disestablishment of Buddhism as a state religion. Neo-Confucianism then took its place, leading to massive changes in Korean family life, politics, religion, and society.

Scholarly analysis of the Ten Injunctions has changed over time. For many years the claim that T’aejo was their author was taken at face value. However, after Korea became a colony of Japan in 1910, the Japanese scholar Imanishi Ryu contended that T’aejo was not, in fact, the author of the Ten Injunctions. While he made some valid arguments, his work was marred by his attempts to use the Ten Injunctions to justify Japanese colonial rule over Korea. Korean scholars have since criticized his work and argued for T’aejo’s authorship; this view has been dominant for the past several decades. In an article published in 2009, Breuker challenges this received wisdom, arguing that the Ten Injunctions were in fact written during the reign of Hyonjong. Because Breuker’s study is so new, there has not yet been time for scholars who favor the authorship of T’aejo to respond.